Al-Ahram Weekly, Egypt
March 24-30 2005
The assumption
To mark the 200th anniversary of the year Mohamed Ali became
exclusive ruler of Egypt, Professor Yunan Labib Rizk begins the first
of a nine-part series on the life of the founder of our modern state,
starting with his ascension
Mohamed Ali
For several weeks now the Al-Ahram history centre has been exploring
a question that we knew would be asked by anyone interested in modern
Egyptian history: How should we commemorate the bicentennial of
Mohamed Ali Pasha’s assumption to the throne in Egypt? The date on
which this occurred — 13 May 1805 — marks a turning point not only
in the history of Egypt but in the history of the entire region. For
Egyptians in particular it was when their country started to make the
transition from the middle ages to the modern era.
After having considered several ideas for commemorating this
occasion, our attention was serendipitously drawn to a set of very
relevant back issues of Al-Ahram. In November 1949, Egypt was
commemorating the centennial of Mohamed Ali’s death. Al-Ahram ‘s
contribution at the time was to gather the greatest amount possible
of new and pertinent information on this unique figure and to solicit
the contributions of prominent historians, intellectuals and literary
figures of the period. The result was a full-scale portrait of the
“Founder of Modern Egypt” and his times. We have taken the occasion
of the bicentennial of Mohamed Ali’s assumption to the throne to
present today’s readers pieces of this portrait as it appeared in
Al-Ahram over half a century ago, intervening as little as possible
for the purposes of clarification.
The epithet was first coined by Henry Herbert Dodwell, author of The
Founder of Modern Egypt: A Study of Mohamed Ali (Cambridge, The
University Press, 1931).
Al-Ahram ‘s first article in its Mohamed Ali series — “How he
ascended the throne” — was the work of the newspaper’s editorial
staff. Their account opens during that brief respite following the
end of the Napoleonic expedition, a year and a half after the
evacuation of French forces on 3 July 1801 and three months before
the final evacuation of the British forces that had helped drive out
the French, the last phase of which was completed on 5 March 1801 in
accordance with the Treaty of Amiens.
“In January 1803, Egypt was divided into three areas of influence:
Alexandria, which was occupied by a British force of 4,430 troops;
the rest of the Delta and Cairo, which were controlled by a
10,000-strong Ottoman army; and Upper Egypt, which was controlled by
the Mamelukes whose forces consisted of 3,000 cavalry men, 6,000
tribesmen and 80 French artillery soldiers who had deserted the
French occupation army and joined the Mamelukes. In any confrontation
between Mameluke and Ottoman forces, the latter were routinely
defeated because they did not trust and hence obey their leaders. The
viceroy of Egypt at the time was Mohamed Ali’s sworn enemy, Mohamed
Khusraw Pasha, who later became the grand vizier in Istanbul.”
This is one of the rare references to the desertion of French troops
to Mameluke forces. It is not clear what prompted these soldiers to
refuse to return to France with the rest of the expedition.
Conjectures have varied from the personal — the soldiers may have
taken Egyptian wives for example — to the political — that they had
volunteered to remain the eyes and ears of France in Egypt.
Regardless, it is interesting how readily they could be absorbed into
the Mameluke armies. Perhaps this is because of the heterogeneous
nature of these forces in contrast to the Albanian forces, for
example, which were bound by national-ethnic affiliations. Of course,
it helped that the French artillery officers had useful skills to
offer.
“In late June 1803, the Egyptian people, aided by the Mameluke beys
in Cairo, rose up against and killed Taher Pasha, commander of the
Ottoman garrison in Cairo, while Mameluke and Albanian forces under
Mohamed Ali took Mohamed Khusraw prisoner. In July, Ali Pasha was
appointed governor. Although he had curried favour with the British,
he was disliked by other European powers and the Egyptian people.
Meanwhile, the Albanian troops began to demand their arrears,
threatening to leave Egypt if they did not receive it. In order to
induce them to stay, Ali Pasha offered to conclude an alliance with
them against the Mamelukes. However, the Mamelukes learned of this
conspiracy, rose up against the governor and exiled him to Jaffa.”
Abdel-Rahman El-Gabarti relates a different version of the
assassination of Taher Pasha. According to his account, after being
appointed commander, he refused to meet the janissaries’ demands for
their back pay, in response to which a group of them “attacked him
with their swords and one of them cut off his head and threw it from
the window into the courtyard.”
Prior to this, the Ottoman governor waged several campaigns against
the Mameluke forces ensconced in the Delta. After having suffered
numerous defeats at their hands, he agreed to place himself under the
protection of the Mameluke emirs, which provoked the surprise and
scorn of the Egyptian people.
“The Mamelukes demanded that Khurshid Pasha, governor of Alexandria,
be made viceroy. At this time, too, Alfi Bek returned from England.
Disturbed by this development, Othman Al-Bardisi Bek summoned Mohamed
Ali, commander of the Armenian regiments, to discuss the subject.
They concluded their meaning by agreeing to an alliance.
“On 20 February, in the dead of night, Mohamed Ali and his soldiers
crossed the Nile at the banks of Old Cairo, and launched a surprise
attack on Alfi Bek’s horsemen who had camped near Giza, although Alfi
the younger managed to flee. Mohamed Ali seized control of the
village of Giza and then pursued the remnants of Alfi’s forces all
the way to Manouf. Nevertheless, he was unable to capture Alfi the
elder.
“These campaigns broke the back of the Mamelukes, which cheered the
Albanian forces and helped Mohamed Ali’s star to rise. The Albanian
commander immediately contacted the French consul and asked him to
mediate on his behalf with the sultan so that he could be granted the
governorship of Egypt. The consul hastily penned a letter to his
government stating, “I can assure you that Mohamed Ali has not
concealed his determination to reach power. However, in spite of that
commander’s sympathy towards France, I am not certain whether he
possesses the necessary ability to devise and implement a
comprehensive programme.
“In March, Mohamed Ali held a frank exchange with the French consul.
He told him point blank that he intended to break the power of the
Mamelukes. Then he shouted, “How can you put your trust in those men
who betrayed your brother, your colleague and your friend? As for us,
their sworn enemies, we expect nothing from them but treachery and
destruction.”
The acting governor of Cairo: Like other Mameluke emirs during their
short control of the capital, he was rapacious in his levies of taxes
and duties, triggering popular protests led by Al-Azhar ulama and in
which the protesters cried, “what can you take from my empty purse,
Bardisi?”
This account establishes that Mohamed Ali, who took over command of
the Albanian forces following the assassination of its former
commander, had his eyes trained on the Egyptian throne quite early
on. It contrasts sharply with the customary narrative according to
which the young commander initially expressed reluctance when
approached by Egyptian leaders with an offer to make him their ruler.
“Soon afterwards, Mohamed Ali met Khurshid Pasha secretly and
concluded a pact with him to attack the Mamelukes. On 11 March, the
Albanian forces assaulted the homes of Othman Bek and Ibrahim Bek,
forcing them to flee with their wounds. The Albanians then occupied
the Citadel. When Khusraw Pasha and Ali Pasha learned of the Albanian
victory, they fled to Istanbul.”
“Everything had gone to Khurshid Pasha’s satisfaction. However, as he
had assumed power without the authority of a firman from the sultan,
Mohamed Ali proclaimed that Khurshid’s rule was illegitimate and
seized control of the army. When Ahmed Al-Jazzar, the governor of
Akka, learned of this development, he sent an armed force to Arish to
strike a treaty with Mohamed Ali. Fearing the consequences of such a
pact, the sultan hastened to dispatch the firman Khurshid Pasha
required; however, Ali Pasha died a few days later.”
These events illustrate the extent to which Istanbul’s control over
its provinces had weakened; it could do little but assent to de facto
realities. They also establish a precedent for the events of 13 May
1805 when Egyptian leaders effectively handed Mohamed Ali the
governorship.
“Then Alfi Bek advanced at the head of his forces to Cairo and
offered a truce to Khurshid. Now mistrustful of Mohamed Ali, Khurshid
agreed and Alfi Bek secured himself inside the Citadel. Mohamed Ali
was aware of the precariousness of the situation. The Mamelukes had
surrounded the capital and threatened to starve the population while
the Albanian troops were growing restless over not having received
their arrears.”
“It was not long, however, before the Mamelukes fell into dispute
over what military strategy to adopt against the Albanians. Mohamed
Ali hastened to take advantage of this opportunity to deliver an
unanticipated strike, attacking the forces of Alfi the younger that
were camped between Tura and Old Cairo and seizing four cannons.
Then, on 23 July he seized Shalqan. At the same time, the Nile floods
forced the Mamelukes to end their siege and withdraw again to the
Fayoum. Mohamed Ali hastened into pursuit and put the forces of
Al-Bardisi and Ibrahim Bek to flight into Upper Egypt.”
“In September 1804, in deference to the desire of this force to
return to their country, Mohamed Ali decided to leave Egypt. However,
Khurshid Pasha feared that the Mamelukes would take advantage of
Mohamed Ali’s withdrawal to seize power again and tried to persuade
him to stay. Mohamed Ali agreed and took up battle again at the head
of some Albanian regiments that decided to remain in Egypt.”
“In January 1805, after re-organising his forces to which had been
added the Ottoman regiments, Mohamed Ali laid siege to Minia, then a
formidable Mameluke stronghold. After two months of ferocious
warfare, his soldiers succeeded in taking the city after inflicting
an ignominious defeat upon the Mamelukes.”
A contemporary source relates that on 13 December 1804 “it was
reported that a battle broke out between Ottoman forces and the
Egyptian emirs (the Mamelukes) in Minia, during which Saleh Al-Alfi
Bek and Murad Bek, two of the new district governors outside Cairo,
were killed.”
“After this victory Mohamed Ali decided to return to Cairo, bringing
all his forces with him and declaring that the forces that were under
his command demanded their pay. Fearful of this advance, Khurshid
Pasha took precautions to hold out against an attack. Then, as soon
as Mohamed Ali crossed the Nile, Khurshid sent a messenger to learn
of his intentions. In spite of this, Mohamed Ali marched into Cairo
at the head of his forces. Henceforward, the relations between the
two commanders were strained. There was no exchange of visits.
Instead, Mohamed Ali demanded to see the government accounts dating
from the day Khurshid assumed power. He also insisted that the
lieutenant and commander of the Citadel garrison be sent to Upper
Egypt, while he himself would remain in Cairo. Commenting on the
situation at this time, the French consul observed, ‘it appears that
Mohamed Ali has great influence with both the soldiers and the
people. All military and civilian leaders have visited him, in
violation of the orders issued by Khurshid Pasha prohibiting this.'”
“The inhabitants of Egypt had grown weary of the climate of tension
that prevailed in the country at that time and yearned for stability.
In May 1805, the French consul wrote to his government, ‘in spite of
the rumours to the effect that things have returned to normal and
that Khurshid Pasha and Mohamed Ali have resolved their differences,
I feel compelled to request instructions from the Foreign Ministry
regarding the policy I should adopt in the event that Mohamed Ali
seizes power.
“Several days later, the people, led by the ulama, rose up against
the Ottoman army which was still perpetrating crimes. Mohamed Ali
declared himself ready to defend the people and issued strict orders
to his soldiers to prevent crime and defend the rights and safety of
the people.”
The following account by El-Gabarti underscores the importance of
this event whose bicentennial we are celebrating today: “When Monday
arrived, they met in the judge’s house. A large throng of people had
gathered but were prevented from opening the gate which was shut in
their face. Therefore, all went to Mohamed Ali and said, ‘We do not
want that pasha to rule us. He has to be removed from power.’ Mohamed
Ali asked, ‘and who do you want as governor?’ They answered, ‘we will
only accept you. We want you to govern us according to our conditions
because we feel you are just and good.’ Mohamed Ali declined at first
but then accepted. A kaftan was brought in which El-Sayed Omar and
Sheikh El-Sharqawi helped him don. By now it was the late afternoon,
and the news of Mohamed Ali’s investiture was conveyed to Ahmed
Pasha. He responded, ‘I am invested governor by order of the sultan
and I will not be dismissed by peasants. I will only leave the
Citadel when commanded to do so by the sultan.’ The following morning
the people assembled again. The pasha mounted his horse and together
with a large throng carrying swords and sticks they went to Ezbekiya
Lake.
“On 10 May 1805, Mohamed Ali learned that he had been appointed
governor of Jeddah. This appointment had been issued two months
earlier, but Khurshid Pasha had concealed the news out of his need
for Mohamed Ali’s services. However, now that he felt his power
threatened by the general commander, he revealed the firman in an
official assembly. Although Mohamed Ali declared that he was willing
to depart, the Albanians surrounded Khurshid Pasha following the
recitation of the firman and demanded their arrears. Khurshid Pasha
announced he would levy a tax for this purpose, which provoked the
populace to anger.
“Upon leaving Khurshid’s camp, Mohamed Ali broadcast the news of his
departure to the people. The following day, he gathered his soldiers
and notified Khurshid that he must resign his post. The people joined
Mohamed Ali’s forces, and Khurshid withdrew into the Citadel with a
force of 2,000 men.”
“At the same time, Egyptian sheikhs and notables sent a delegate to
Istanbul with a petition to the Supreme Porte to appoint Mohamed Ali
governor of Egypt instead of Khurshid. The Supreme Porte sent a
delegate to Egypt to investigate the matter.”
“On 10 July 1805, the supreme edict arrived from Istanbul and was
announced in the Egyptian capital. It proclaimed that, in deference
to the will of the populace, Mohamed Ali had been appointed viceroy
of Egypt and ordered Khurshid Pasha to depart to Alexandria. When Ali
Pasha, Khurshid’s master of arms, learned the news he set out from
Upper Egypt at the head of a force of 3,000, which was intercepted by
Mohamed Ali.”
“While the fighting ranged between Ali Pasha and Mohamed Ali,
Al-Qubtan Pasha arrived in Egypt and decided to await the outcome of
the battle in order to determine what measures to take. The Mamelukes
tried to persuade him of the friendship between them and Khurshid.
When this failed, they staged a demonstration of their power. On 18
August, 400 Mameluke horsemen marched into the capital, preceded by
pipers and drummers in order to create the impression of a victory
parade. This, too, ended in failure, for the people rose up against
them. Moreover, when the horsemen attempted to take flight, leaving
their arms, purses and property behind them, the people intercepted
and eliminated them all.”
“Meanwhile, Hussein Al- Qubtan, who had formerly commanded a fleet
that assisted in the expulsion of the French, became embroiled in
internal conflicts between the Mamelukes and the Turks. The Turkish
admiral used every means at his disposal to put an end to the
‘Egyptian emirs’.”
“The admiral only left Egypt when Khurshid Pasha was made governor of
Salanik. However, before leaving he expressed his misgivings over
leaving Mohamed Ali at the head of the army.”
“On 27 June, Qubtan Pasha returned to Egypt, offered Mohamed Ali the
choice between the governorship of Salanik or Cyprus. He then
declared that Alfi Bek was the governor of Cairo and that Moussa
Pasha then governor of Salanik was on his way to Egypt at the head of
a powerful army to take control of the government.”
“Mohamed Ali told the admiral that he would obey his orders and leave
Egypt. However, before departing he insisted that the admiral pay
LE100,000 to the armed forces, and threatened that if the admiral
refused to do so he — Mohamed Ali — would put his own life at risk
on behalf of the soldiers and also subject Cairo to severe hardship.”
“At this time, the chief magistrate, sheikhs and ulama of Al- Azhar
and eminent notables signed a petition appealing to the Supreme Porte
to retain Mohamed Ali in Egypt because his rule was more just than
the rule of the Mamelukes. Mohamed Ali, for his part, proclaimed to
the British consul that he feared no one, certainly not the chief
admiral, and that he was capable of repelling any foreign force that
attempted to intervene in Egypt to assist the Mamelukes.”
“Qubtan Pasha had not yet despaired of his ability to persuade
Mohamed Ali to leave Egypt through a negotiated agreement. Only when
it was too late that he decided to take the measures to remove him by
force.”
“When Al-Alfi Bek’s forces were defeated at Damanhour, Qubtan Pasha
was forced to resume negotiations with Mohamed Ali. On 20 October
1806 he returned to Istanbul taking with him Ibrahim, Mohamed Ali’s
son.
“However, in 1807, Alfi Bek died. The death of Mohamed Ali’s most
formidable adversary brought an end to all effective resistance to
his rule.”
Alfi Bek died of cholera on 10 January 1807. Before that, however, he
had succeeded in eliminating his rival Mameluke emir, Othman Bek
Al-Bardisi, whom he had poisoned. Nevertheless, Al-Alfi had won
considerable admiration among his contemporaries. Even El-Gabarti
felt remorse at the passing of the emir whose death he considered the
end of an era:
“Oh Egypt! Look at your children around you, fragmented, estranged
and outcast, while boorish Turks and Jews and depraved Albanians take
over your land and collect your taxes; make war on your children and
combat your heroes; destroy your homes and inhabit your palaces;
defile your visage and your sight and extinguish your joy and your
light.”
Clearly, El-Gabarti did not hold out the best hopes for the era upon
which he was about to embark. In his account, Al-Alfi said shortly
before his death, “Fate has decreed that Egypt be left to Mohamed
Ali.” One imagines that in conveying these dire sentiments,
El-Gabarti is not so much fearful of the advent of an age in which
Mohamed Ali would exercise exclusive rule over Egypt as he was
mournful of the passing of the age to which he himself had belonged.